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Electricity, 1994.
This paper discusses the history and development of electricity from Benjamin Franklin to the early 20th Century: Major theories, discoveries and applications, social and psychological implications, occult aspects, inventions, motors, cells, communicati
6,750 words (approx. 27.0 pages), 12 sources, $ 135.95
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"Before about the last quarter of the eighteenth century, electricity essentially did not exist as a comprehensible phenomenon. The effects of lightning were of course universally known, but no remotely accurate guesses had been made as to its causes. The phenomenon of static electricity was also known--the word electric and its variations comes from the Greek word elektron (in Latin, electrum), or amber, which produces static electricity when rubbed with a cloth (Shilling, 1948, p. 5). (confusing, the term was also used for an alloy of gold and silver, perhaps of similar color.) Experimentation with static electricity began in sixteenth-century Italy; Jerome Cardan, about 1550, first distinguished electrical from magnetic phenomena. The relationship between the two continued to be acknowledged; Gilbert, in 1600, ... "
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Nuclear Power Dangers, 1994.
A look at the problems of design and construction, regulation and bureaucracy, waste disposal, politics, costs and environment.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 4 sources, $ 47.95
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" Many people have concluded that nuclear power is fundamentally evil (Morgan 7). Those who oppose nuclear power do so because, at least in a rough qualitative way, they have balanced the risks and benefits as they understand them and have concluded that no amount of readjustment in the organizations that manage the technology or in the nature and balance of the risks and benefits it brings will make nuclear power acceptable. Other people still view this issue as a balance of risks, costs, and benefits. Proponents of nuclear power argue that, with much re-education and some re-examining of current organizations and technology, the public can be persuaded to welcome back nuclear power (Morgan 7).
Although nuclear power continues to play an active role in the energy planning of other nations, the U.S. nuclear power..."
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Theoretical Physics in 19th Century, 1993.
Crises caused by new discoveries, classical mechanics, Second Law of Thermodynamics and electromagnetism.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 6 sources, $ 39.95
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" By the last few decades of the nineteenth century, theoretical physics was entering a state of crisis.. This crisis, which reached its culmination about the turn of the century, was due to several factors. New discoveries, some quite accidental (such as that of X-rays) made physicists aware of previously unimagined form of radiant energy..
In addition, the development of precise means of measurements allowed experimental confirmation to be sought even for extremely subtle effects, which previously would have remained in the domain of theory alone.. For example, the luminiferous ether, through which light was supposed to move, was widely assumed to exist by nineteenth century physicists. Once its effects became measurable, experimentalists sought to identify them--and failed to find them, triggering a crisis.."
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Nuclear Energy in Italy, 1993.
A look at public opinion, safety, the impact of Chernobyl, design, types of reactors and regulations regarding nuclear energy in Italy.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 20 sources, $ 47.95
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"Nuclear Energy in Italy
Following the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, an Italian referendum held in November of 1987 showed widespread opposition to all nuclear development.. In response to this poll, Italy's government came out with a new National Energy Plan (PEN) in August 1988.. The plan placed a 5.year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear plants and called for research into newer, safer designs that would one day allow nuclear power to return.. Since PEN went into effect, nuclear energy technologies have progressed considerably. These advances, as well as other factors, may soon cause Italy to reevaluate its nuclear energy policy.
The public poll of 1987 rejected an array of propositions that either favored nuclear power or facilitated the siting of..."
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Confocal Microscope, 1993.
A look at the development, purpose, types, problems, innovations and applications of the confocal microscope.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 11 sources, $ 39.95
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From the Paper
"The Confocal Microscope
Invention of the first microscope occurred about 1600 A.D. (3:39). As technology advanced, by 1887 improvements in resolution enabled John Buist to observe the small pox virus (3:40). Then, throughout the 20th century, progress in the field of microscopy accelerated (3:40). Ernst Ruska's invention of the electron microscope around 1930 increased resolutions by orders of magnitude (3:40). This was quickly followed by the development of phase contrast, differential interference contrast, and fluorescence microscopy techniques (11:183). It was the widespread use of fluorescent probes..and the background glare they produced..which eventually led to the development of the confocal microscope (3:40).
The first confocal microscope was invented by Minsky in 1955..."
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Nuclear Energy in Japan, 1993.
A look at the problems and risks, economics, opposition and the role of the government.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 13 sources, $ 39.95
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"Nuclear Energy in Japan
More than any other country, Japan has staked its industrial future on nuclear power.. Its 40 commercial reactors currently supply about 26% of Japan's electricity.. In addition, by the year 2010, the Japanese government plans to double that number to about 80 in order to supply 43% of the country's electricity needs.. Since Japan has virtually no domestic supplies of coal or oil, nuclear power is its way of achieving energy independence..
In 1991 alone, the government allocated nearly 60% of its Science and Technology Agency's budget, or 317.3 billion yen, to nuclear research and development.. Its long.term policy involves the commercial use of plutonium in fast.breeder reactors and light.water reactors, as well as vigorous research on fusion."
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Petroleum Industry in the U.S., 1993.
Examines global strategies, production and consumption data, energy reserves, free trade agreement and competition.
2,250 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 14 sources, $ 79.95
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"This research examines the global strategies of the American petroleum industry. The findings of this research are presented in four major areas of interest: production and consumption comparisons for the United States and other global regions; global configuration; global coordination; competition strategy; and industry structure.
The contemporary history of the United States has been and continues to be characterized by a dependency on foreign sources of energy--primarily on crude oil (Ashton, 1992, p. 82).
Overall, the United States produces energy in an amount equivalent to 88.9 percent of its total energy consumption
(Energy Information Administration, 1992, pp. 126-127).
Aggregate measures, however, do not reflect the mismatch between the country's energy production mix and the energy consumption ..."
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Windmills, 1993.
Examines their history and evolution from 644 A.D. to the 1990s, discussing purposes, technology, designs, theory, materials, efficiency and wind turbines.
2,250 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 6 sources, $ 79.95
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"Historically, wind energy conversion systems can be considered as one of man's earliest machines. Windmills, according to documentation, were used in Persia as early as 644 A.D. to grind grain (5:9). Mechanically, the Persian windmill was a development of the watermill--an earlier machine used for turning grains into flour--and it looked a little like one turned up on end. A vertical shaft was set in a square tower, with sails set at right angles to the shaft at its top end. The wind passed through slots in the tower on to the sails, allowing the shaft to turn, as well as any machinery set at the bottom end (2:13).
Traditionally, this principle travelled with the prisoners of Ghengis Khan to China, where horizontal mills with matting sails, but without the enclosing tower, were used to drive irrigation machinery. The Chinese discovered that if the ..."
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Grand Unified Theories, 1993.
Argues that the successful concept will cover outer and inner limits of the universe.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 3 sources, $ 47.95
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"This study will argue that a grand unified theory which is truly "grand" and "unified" will cover, theoretically, both the "outer" and "inner" limits of the universe. As we shall see, the most seriously considered grand unified theories do indeed cover both inner and outer limits.
Einstein worked on a Unified Field Theory for the last twenty-five or so years of his life. As Barnett writes, "Today the outer limits of man's knowledge are defined by Relativity, the inner limits by Quantum Theory. Relativity has shaped all our concepts of space, time, gravitation, and the realities that are too remote and too vast to be perceived. The Quantum Theory has shaped all our concepts of the atom, the basic units of matter and energy, and the realities that are too elusive and too small to be perceived" (1:107)."
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Chemical Weathering on Mars, 1993.
Analyzes the planet's geologic processes compared to Earth.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 13 sources, $ 47.95
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"Chemical Weathering on Mars
Recent high pressure experiments have provided insight on the chemical composition of Mars' mantle (11:2239). Such studies indicate that 15.7 percent of the planet is composed of metal..a large proportion of which is iron (11:2239). It is estimated that partial melting of this mantle produces an iron.rich basaltic magma which generally reaches the planet's surface via massive shield volcanos and fissure eruptions (5:90). The extrusion of this turbulent, low viscosity lava has resulted in thinly disseminated iron sulfide mineralization over large areas of Mars (5:90). In addition to these iron.rich flows, the red planet's surface is also characterized by large accumulations of basaltic ash (7:2237). These deposits..some of which are meters thick..have undergone variable degrees of weathering (10:24). It ..."
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Hydropower In Canada, 1992.
Examines definition, types, examples (James Bay project), benefits, costs and environmental issues.
2,475 words (approx. 9.9 pages), 14 sources, $ 87.95
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"Water has been used to generate power for thousands of years. The use of water to generate electricity is a relatively new phenomenon, but one which has gained in popularity since such power is renewable and often readily available. This research explores the use and production of hydropower in Canada, with a special emphasis on the James Bay construction project. Attention is given to hydropower itself, different types of hydropower projects, and the economic, environmental and social costs associated with large hydropower megaprojects.
Hydroelectric power comes about when water passes through a vertical distance (called a 'head'). "Run-of-the-river" techniques use the head from the increased flow from a gradually declining riverbed. Dams use falling water which..."
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Solar Energy, 1992.
A look at its use in building a house including its effectiveness, types and functions.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 5 sources, $ 47.95
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"Incorporating Solar Energy in the Building of a House
The incorporation of solar energy into the building of a house can greatly reduce the cost of heating or cooling the house, even when used along with conventional means of energy production and uses. This paper will discuss several different aspects of incorporating solar energy into residential living quarters and will touch on the subjects of sighting and orientation of the house and solar panels, the window locations and. overhang, plants and vegetation, the solar collectors or cells, and thermal mass storage. The usefulness of solar energy will also be discussed."
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