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English Only, 2004.
An analysis of the debate and controversy over whether the United States should have a national language.
2,646 words (approx. 10.6 pages), 9 sources, MLA, $ 79.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the issue of 'English Only' laws in America. The United States is a pluralistic society. It can be described as 'a melting pot' of languages and cultures. Language is a critical part of every culture and brings with it a strong sense of national linguistics, cultural identity, and individual perception. Language helps to tell who a person is, that person's values and beliefs. The paper contends that unity and disunity can be a result of the use of multiple and solitary languages. The paper explains that the welfare of the public can be greatly affected by language, as seen through the viewpoints of health care professionals and public educators presented in this paper.
Outline
Introduction
Linguistic Nationalism
Pluralistic Society
Language and Maintenance of Identity
Perception and the Role of Language
Single/Multiple Languages - Unity or Disunity
Stakeholders
Viewpoints from Health Care Professionals
Viewpoints from Public Educators
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Throughout the history of the United States there have been multiple languages spoken by different cultures. A "melting pot" of cultures (including languages) is what the United States has been known for. This linguistic diversity continues into our present day culture. Language is a critical part of every culture and brings with it a strong sense of national linguistics. A society's identity and perception revolve around their language. Multiple or solitary languages can bring either unity or disunity depending on the situation. In every society, the welfare and needs of the public is strived to be taken care of. When there are multiple languages spoken in a pluralistic society, the lack of communication can be a barrier for the populations needs."
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Men and Women Conversational Styles, 2005.
A research of the difference between men and women in language including a synopsis of the dominance and difference approach.
1,469 words (approx. 5.9 pages), 20 sources, MLA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how socio-linguistic study shows that men and women use language in different ways, which all too often leads to male-female mis-communication. It looks at how, although the dominance approach and the difference approach are the two main viewpoints in analysing gender and language, some linguists have taken a position somewhere in between the two. It explores these theories and concludes with the author's viewpoint on the subject.
From the Paper
"The dominance theory emphasizes the idea that linguistic differences in women and men's language exist as a result of men's power and women's subordination. The dominance approach considers linguistic differences to be a result of traditional social differences i.e. that of man in the role of power, and woman in the role of submission. Man's authority and woman's inferiority are mirrored through their linguistic behaviour. This research focuses mainly on a variety of features, such as the use of tag questions, interruptions, questions, standard forms and minimal responses."
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"Syntactic Structures", 2005.
An analysis of how Noam Chomsky's syntactic revolution overpowered B.F. Skinner and the behaviorist approach to language.
1,239 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
Prior to 1957, the two most popular ways of analyzing grammar were the methods of prescriptivism and structuralism, or structural grammar. The paper examines how all this changed with the release of Noam Chomsky's "Syntactic Structures" in 1957 in which he introduced a new way to analyze grammar called 'transformational grammar'. The paper discusses how Chomsky publicly destroyed Skinner's theories and argues that Chomsky's ability to explain certain quirks of the English language, such as ambiguity, and the behaviorists' utter lack of a retort, makes it clear that Noam Chomsky deserves his title as a living legend among linguists today.
From the Paper
"Chomsky makes clear that the input-output approach is better and different from the approach of the behaviorist, because he points out once again how it can handle certain nuances of the language such as ambiguities. "Whatever a habit-structure is, it's clear that you can't innovate by habit, and the characteristic use of language, both by a speaker and a hearer, is innovation" (103)."
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A Neutral International Language, 2003.
A look at the growing need for an international language in the current era of globalization and increased interaction between the global population.
3,556 words (approx. 14.2 pages), 11 sources, MLA, $ 99.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the importance of communication between countries and government representatives that is efficient and effective and does not require the the aid of expensive translators. The paper further argues that the only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language, which all the people of the world understand and speak. Finally, the paper contends that such a language should be an artificial language, such as Esperanto, because it is politically neutral and not linked to any specific country, culture, or political ideology; is easier to learn than any other language; and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. A complete outline and an annotated bibliography is included with the paper.
From the Paper
"In the era of globalization and increase of interaction between the global population, the importance of an international language increases. The numbers reported by Kep Enderby, the author of "The Problem of Language In International Affairs," and a former government minister and judge, support this argument. Enderby informs readers that the world's 5.2 billion people speak 3,000 different world languages and 7,000 dialects (par. 2). As global cooperation is necessary, thousands of people from across the world attend over 2,000 international conferences a year (par. 26). Since they do not have a common language, at least four different languages are officially used, with translators still needed (Enderby par. 33). People and governments do not have a common language, and this results in misunderstandings, waste of time and waste of money. In the age where all countries are connected and dependant on one another, and where representatives of governments have to meet regularly and often, it is essential that communication between them is efficient and not requiring the aid of expensive translators. The only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language which all the people of the world understand and speak. Furthermore, a universal language will have the practical objective of giving all people, from all countries, a global identity. Most people agree with this idea but disagree on whether this universal language should be a natural language such as English, or an artificial one such as Esperanto. Although many people favor the adopting of English as an international language, believing that it is an obvious choice because it is already a popular and widely spoken second language, that is easy to learn, it is not a good alternative. The best choice for an international language is an artificial one like Esperanto because it is politically neutral, not linked to any specific country, culture or political ideology, is easier to learn than any other language, and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. However, the success of adopting Esperanto as a "lingua humana," like Gardner Ralph White calls it in "Towards the Construction of A Lingua Humana," (113) is greatly dependant upon its introduction into the educational systems of countries as a second language and the chances for its success are poor."
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Stuttering, 2005.
Discusses the importance of understanding the underlying psychological problems associated with stuttering.
2,966 words (approx. 11.9 pages), 16 sources, MLA, $ 87.95
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Abstract
This paper begins by examining the many and varied theories used to explain the causes of stuttering and then follows with an analysis of stuttering and its affect on academic achievement. The paper asserts that this analysis supports the argument that stuttering is primarily a psychologically-caused, linguistic impairment condition and that this knowledge is an important step towards reducing the academic difficulties faced by students who stutter.
From the Paper
"The majority of children learn language in what seems to look like an easy and natural process, characterized by different stages of fluency. At each stage of the language acquisition process, the child gains a larger vocabulary and a greater fluency. Because most children pass from one stage to another without difficulty few people, except linguists, psychologists and scientists, have considered the minority of children who do not acquire linguistic fluency, and do not speak in a clear and comprehensible way, although they may have the same language knowledge and vocabulary as do others of their age group. Among the various linguistic problems that a child may suffer from, reducing his ability to use language fluently and to communicate effectively, is stuttering."
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The Ebonics Debate, 2002.
An overview of the African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) debate in the American educational system.
2,136 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 12 sources, MLA, $ 66.95
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Abstract
In December 1996, the Oakland School Board decided that it was going to accept and recognize Ebonics, or what is known as African-American Vernacular English (AAVE), as a valid dialect and would use it in teaching African-American children. This paper examines the linguistic controversy surrounding this decision, showing the pros of using AAVE in schools across the United States.
From the Paper
"AAVE is a fact of life and it is creating a linguistic and cultural disunity in the United States by allowing teachers to stereotype black students and by ensuring that black students do not acquire Standard English fluency. The introduction of AAVE as a tool language of instruction simply means accepting that fact of life and using it to correct current problems facing African Americans in the educational system." Educational psychologists, such as William Labov, have determined that the primary obstacle to academic progress for most African American students is their inability to fully understand what is communicated to them or, in turn, communicate what they are thinking in a dialect that teachers can comprehend (10)."
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Discourse Differences between Men and Women, 2004.
A look at how men and women interact with each other through language.
1,738 words (approx. 7.0 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 56.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the different topics that men and women talk about. It shows the way they use words, phrases, statements, and questions in discussion. The paper then looks at how men and women construct their questions. This paper delves into that topic with multiple authorities illustrating it.
From the Paper
"Communication is one of the most evident differences between men and women. There are several differences between how men and women communicate. Some ways that men and women differ is in their topics of discourse, in the way they use vocabulary, in the topics they engage in, and in their filler words, phrases, questions, phonology and style in speech. Since men and women speak so differently from one another, gender influences the way people speak."
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Noam Chomsky and Linguistics, 2003.
An analysis of the contribution of Noam Chomsky to linguistics.
1,674 words (approx. 6.7 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 54.95
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Abstract
This paper tidentifies and analyzes the important contributions made by Noam Chomsky to the field of lingusitics. It looks at important concepts such as generative grammar, I-language and universal grammar. The resistance to the behaviorist approach to understanding language is ultimately linked to his anti-establishment politics.
From the Paper
"The idea of universal grammar is a central one to Chomsky?s linguistic theory. Inherent to this idea is the concept that human beings are equipped with a distinct language faculty in our minds; this faculty is governed by an innate understanding of universal grammar, ?All the minds of human beings include the principles that movement is structure-dependent and that heads are on certain sides of phrases; they are part of the common Universal Grammar. It is not relevant to UG theory that English has a particular set of properties, French another, German another; what matters is what they have in common? (Cook & Newson, 1996, p. 32)."
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?The End of Affluence?, 2004.
A review of the major themes in the book, ?The End of Affluence? by Jeffrey Madrick.
1,562 words (approx. 6.2 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 51.95
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Abstract
This paper examines ?The End of Affluence? by Jeffrey Madrick, which centers on the decline of our economy and not the growth. It looks at how, instead of focusing on the rising affluence of American families, Madrick focuses on the end of the American economic growth machine and how, instead of focusing on the problems that economic growth can help solve, the author writes about the problems that economic stagnation has generated.
From the Paper
"Stagnant incomes also put significantly greater emotional pressures on family members, thus leading to higher divorce rates and more families with two working spouses. Children must then fend for themselves a good part of the day, and so they complete less homework and perform at lower levels in school. ?In some ways, federal education funding is also merely symbolic - never enough to be a significant contribution except in schools in very poor neighborhoods. But federal education funding is very important as a way of getting the country to discuss educational priorities. For more than 20 years, the focus was on equity; in the 1980s, it shifted more toward the economy. Today, neither issue seems to be part of the budget conversations."
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Bilingual Language Development, 2004.
An exploration of the process of double language acquisition by children.
2,676 words (approx. 10.7 pages), 11 sources, MLA, $ 80.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how there are several different ways to expose children to a second language. It looks at how some children are exposed to two languages since birth and how others are exposed to a second language once they enter a school program. It discusses how the process of double language acquisition is not so smooth and how there are a few discrepancies in fluency and language confusion to be taken into account.
Outline
Introduction
How Children Learn Two Languages
Stages of Development
Code Switching
Language Mixing
Two Languages, One Sentence: Not a Sign of Confusion
Language Imbalance
Language Loss and Semilingualism
Conclusion
From the Paper
"For some bilingual children, code switching is a normal language phenomenon. While some children acquiring a second language appear to confuse the two languages at first, code switching is a normal aspect of second language acquisition. Young bilingual children tend to insert single items from one language into the other (McClure, 1977), primarily to resolve ambiguities and clarify statements. Children over nine and adults, however, tend to switch languages at the phrase or sentence level, typically to convey social meanings. Studies of code switching in adults show it to be a sophisticated, rule-governed communicative device used to achieve goals such as conveying emphasis or establishing cultural identity."
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Germanic and English Language, 2004.
A discussion on the influence of the Germanic tongue on English vocabulary and grammar.
1,848 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 12 sources, MLA, $ 59.95
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Abstract
This paper focuses on how the English tongue was derived from Germanic by examining the similarities between the structure and vocabulary of Old and Middle English and German. It looks at how Anglo-Saxon was an inflected language with a structure that is still retained by modern German speakers, coupled with word gender, past participle formation and the process of compounding. It explores through a literature review of works such as "Beowulf" and the Anglo-Saxon poem "The Seafarer" how the English that we speak today essentially evolved under the influence of many languages and how the Germanic tongue was perhaps one of the most instrumental in its formation.
From the Paper
"On perusal of an Anglo-Saxon text such as Beowulf it would seem that the modern English translation uses far more words. The Germanic influence on Old English meant that it was a synthetic language structured on the inflection of nouns and adjectives for four cases in the singular and four in the plural. Through the inflection of Old English one could distinguish the job a word did in a sentence by its ending, regardless of its position. For example, the difference between the Modern English sentences, (i) the woman saw the man, and (ii) the man saw the woman is a matter of word order."
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The Evolution of Writing, 2004.
An exploration of the journey from ancient writing systems to the Greek alphabet.
2,821 words (approx. 11.3 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 84.95
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Abstract
A history of the written word, examining writing from its Sumerian origins through the development of the Greek alphabet. The focus is the shift from pictographic characters to a phonetic alphabet. This paper discusses the Old Canaanite, Phoenician, Egyptian, Hebrew, and Aramaic scripts as well.
From the Paper
"The calling and constant challenge of the poet has been to express, in writing, the highly dynamic and abstractly imaginal feeling of the human condition. Similarly, individuals have long attempted to preserve facets of life for convenience, future reference, or posterity. Writing, now a virtual necessity, was not used until the advent of civilizations, when life became complex enough that memory could not keep track of all of those things one needed to remember. It is a much younger art than that of the spoken language ? which has existed for tens of thousands of years ? but has come far from the early days of writing to today. The first forms of writing are results of the ancient Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations."
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