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Communication from the Gods, 2002.
Examines ways in which Ancient Egyptian gods were believed to have communicated with the population.
4,140 words (approx. 16.6 pages), 12 sources, MLA, $ 111.95
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Abstract
This research provides six specific examples of how the gods were believed to communicate with humanity in ancient Egypt. The research describes ways in which divine-to-human acts of communication were thought to take place in various periods of Egyptian civilization and the content of the patterns of belief. It discusses how perceptions and beliefs appear to have altered over the course of the culture's several-thousand-year tenure, before it was absorbed by Rome in the first century BC. Egypt's pharaonic period, which begins with the Old Kingdom (about 3200 BC), ends in 525 BC, which coincides with the emergence of Greek influence and the infancy of Rome. The paper shows that it is a truism that Greeks and Romans alike considered Egypt to be an ancient civilization.
From the Paper
"What began in the Old Kingdom as a perception of the underworld as a place of wondrous information and potentiality was transformed by the time of the New Kingdom into a perception of the underworld as almost instrumental in the project of transfiguration of human experience into divine experience. As Hornung says, the figure of Osiris in the Old Kingdom period is given precedence over the pharaoh "as if it were a title; later [Osiris] is placed before the name of each deceased individual," which shows that godhead could be incorporated in or infused humankind, the oneness symbolic of perfect communication between matter and spirit."
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Apostolic Spirituality, 2002.
Examines the emergence of spirituality in the apostolic period of Christianity.
11,090 words (approx. 44.4 pages), 22 sources, APA, $ 218.95
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Abstract
This research sets forth the context in which Christian spirituality unfolded in the first century A.D., also known at the apostolic period. It discusses in particular evidence of how the apostles made connections from spiritual experience to the shared experience of faith in the Christian community. The paper examines how the apostolic generation arrived at and then fostered a cohesive doctrine of spirituality that centered around the figure of Jesus Christ, in the shape of a mission of love.
From the Paper
"No less significant is the fact that this spirituality and the apostolic mission are new because they specifically differ from Judaism, not only in the content of the message but also in the behavior of the messengers. For example, Matthew's Jesus (13:14) refers to those who are taught in parables as a fulfillment of "the [Hebrew] prophecy of Esaias, which saith, By hearing he shall hear, and shall not understand." What is implied here is that the teachings of Jesus are meant to be directly relevant to Jewish experience, but the Christian mission is also meant to reinterpret it and point it in new directions. When Matthew says that "every scribe which is instructed unto the kingdom of heaven" (13:52), the implication is that the new interpretation, not the old law, will be preeminent, hence that the Christians and not the Jews (i.e., the new scribes and not the old black-letter-law priests of Judaism) are to have the keys of the kingdom."
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Egyptian Religion and Magic, 2002.
Examines elements of magic and religion in Ancient Egyptian culture.
3,676 words (approx. 14.7 pages), 9 sources, MLA, $ 102.95
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Abstract
This research examines elements of Egyptian culture that seem closer to magic than to religion as they are commonly understood. The research sets forth the context in which concepts of magic and religion achieve resonance in ancient Egypt and then discusses specific examples from Egyptian religious literature and thought that show how the Egyptians distinguished between religion and magic, compared to other monotheists. Finally, it illustrates how magic fits into the religious environment of the culture.
From the Paper
"Differentiating between religion and magic in ancient culture has proved problematic for western commentators to the degree definitions of the terms are approached from the Western but not from a subject other culture's point of view. The tendency to bring Western religious classifications to the project of identifying the attributes of Egyptian religion does not seem to accomplish a great deal analytically. In the worst instances of this type, Ritner says, misinterpretation and mistranslation of some hieroglyphic inscriptions have resulted. Specifically, inscriptions that supposedly distinguished between magic and religion (cult) have proved to be inaccurate. Walker agrees, defining magic not as an expression of evil but as "the art which attempts to influence a course of events by controlling nature of supernatural powers." The good-evil opposition of religion and magic that is typical of and fundamental to Western analysis proves not to be sufficient to the task of understanding the character of religion and the role of magic in religion for Egyptian antiquity."
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The Dead Sea Scrolls, 2002.
Examines the history of the discovery and current issues surrounding the Dead Sea Scrolls.
2,162 words (approx. 8.6 pages), 9 sources, APA, $ 67.95
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Abstract
What started out as an exploration of some ancient scrolls discovered in the Dead Sea region has become a career for some people, a controversy regarding control of the material and a matter leading to interpretation and reinterpretation of central issues in Christianity. The paper examines the story of the Dead Sea Scrolls, describes the controversies and sets forth current findings.
From the Paper
"One of the best overviews of the Qumran project is provided by Hershel Shanks (1998). Shanks was part of the basic editorial team, involved with the archeological excavations, and the initial work on the scrolls. He was part of the group which decided, in the 1990s, to open up the Qumran scrolls to general access. He discussed the political machinations of the group, as well as the relationship of the scrolls to numerous. For example, one issue is the nature of the Copper Scroll and whether that is essentially a fantasy or a real treasure map."
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Ancient Religions, 2002.
Description and comparison of the religions of ancient Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia.
1,206 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses and contrasts the main religions of three civilizations which shaped world history - the religions of ancient Mesopotamia, Greece and Egypt. The paper provides reflections on god/human relations and the way people gods were perceived in different societies.
From the Paper
"In the kingdom of Egypt, beliefs were different because of its isolated position. Situated in a river valley, surrounded by deserts, Egyptians hardly knew what invasion meant. The Nile, with its mild and indescribably fertile floods, gave the habitants of this region assuredness that the gods were with them. The climate was warm and humid, natural disasters were extremely rare. In other words, the gods loved people, and people loved them; in The Leiden Hymns for example, Amon Ra, was described as the ?all powerful one (yet kindly, / whose heart would lie open to men)? (Norton Anthology 45)."
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The Babylonian Zero, 2002.
An examination on how the figure "zero" evolved during the Babylonian times.
2,176 words (approx. 8.7 pages), 17 sources, APA, $ 67.95
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Abstract
This paper begins by providing a history of the evolution of zero and discusses the origin of the symbol. It then discusses the origins of the concept of "zero" and how this was perceived differently by various ancient cultures such as the Egyptians, the Mayans and the Babylonians. It then focuses specifically on the "Babylonian zero" and how this differed in concept from other figures at the time. The paper includes several diagrams and pictures.
From the Paper
"The symbol zero evolved into its present form after quite a number of transformations. The idea of how the symbol was devised also harbors a few contradictory ideas. Opinions range from it being a dot originally, replaced by a circle with a dot in the center and then maturing to the current form, an oval shape that we all are familiar with. (Pearce, I., 2002). The Egyptian zero that evolved has also been equated with the hieroglyph for beauty, and that of the human windpipe, heart and lungs. (Williams, S. W., 2002)"
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Burial Rituals of Ancient Egypt, 2002.
This paper examines the burial rituals of ancient Egypt, especially the processes of embalming and mummification.
2,245 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 7 sources, APA, $ 69.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the Egyptian funerary rituals and equipment, which eventually became the most elaborate the world has ever known. The author states that Egyptians began the art of embalming in the very earliest dynastic times because the body had to remain intact to grant to the dead the illusion of life. The paper presents in detail the many processes of embalming.
From the Paper
"The Predynastic Cultures of Ancient Egypt, for example, were relatively simple in their material possessions, including their grave goods, although these cultures seemed to enjoy a substantial degree of prosperity compared to the peoples around them and a relatively constant level of prosperity. As early as about 4000 B.C., some people were being buried with a relatively high number of grave goods compared to others, indicating that a complex society with a number of different social ranks had already evolved and was established well enough for people to want it to be reflected through eternity. The bodies of this time do not bear the elaborate preparations that they would by the New Kingdom thousands of years later. But, they do bear signs of an attempt to preserve them against the elements, including the wrapping of the body in cloth and at least sometimes the treating of the body with preservative chemicals ? sometimes by simply immersing or coating the body with these chemicals, sometimes by infusing the cloth wrappings with these chemicals. Except for the simplicity of this treatment, it resembles in essential ways later mummification techniques."
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Kleisthenes, 2002.
An examination of the life of Kleisthenes, known as the true father of democracy in ancient Athens
1,736 words (approx. 6.9 pages), 4 sources, APA, $ 56.95
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Abstract
This paper covers the history of Athenian democracy, dealing with the foundation of democracy in ancient Athens, from Solon to Pericles. It argues that Kleisthenes should be considered the father of democracy because he did more than any other Greek leader to create a truly democratic state. Using Robert A. Dahl?s five criteria for democracy: effective participation, effective participation of all, control of the agenda, enlightened understanding, and voting equality, along with available archeological evidence, it shows that although there were many Greek leaders who furthered the cause of the Athenian citizen, it was Kleisthenes? reforms that paved the way for a true democracy and an end to the aristocratic rule of Athens.
From the Paper
"Upon assuming power, Kleisthenes instituted a number of reforms. He began by breaking up the old aristocratic power structure which was dominated by the four Ionian tribes of Attica. He replaced these with ten new tribes in an attempt to displace the factional differences that had previously divided Athens politically. The ten tribes would become the cornerstone of Athenian democracy, as they formed the basis for the selection and organization of all political and social structures. Kleisthenes also organized the people into local demes, which became the new basis for Athenian citizenship, and was structured around individual towns or neighborhoods within a city."
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The Seven Wonders of the World, 2002.
This paper looks at what has become the accepted list of the "Seven Wonders of the World", highlighting each one for its outstanding characteristics.
1,074 words (approx. 4.3 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 37.95
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Abstract
The original list of the Seven Wonders was compiled when the city of Egypt was the center of Western civilization. This paper describes how over time the list of Wonders became regularized, the finalists being the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, the Mausoleum at Halicamassus, the Colossus of Rhodes and the Pharos at Alexandria. The writer looks in detail at each wonder.
From the Paper
"The first Wonder of the World is the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. The Great Pyramid was built over a twenty year period. The site was first prepared, and then blocks of stone were transported and placed. An outer casing was then used to smooth the surface. Although it is not known how the blocks were put in place, several theories have been proposed. One theory involves the construction of a straight or spiral ramp that was raised as the construction proceeded. A second theory suggests that the blocks were placed using long levers with a short angled foot. The online Wikipedia Encyclopedia says, ?There is enough blocks in the pyramid to build a wall 10 foot tall, all the way
the country of France? (Seven 1). The Great Pyramid is one of the most important because it has withstood weather conditions and aging."
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Colonization of Australia, 2002.
This paper suggests that further exploitation and increased specific data bring to light new patterns in the biogeographic model for the arid region of Australia.
2,753 words (approx. 11.0 pages), 30 sources, MLA, $ 82.95
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Abstract
Arrival of the original Australians has long been a topic of debate amongst anthropologists and archaeologists. The questions of why, how and when Greater Australia was colonized are often asked. The biogeographic colonization model proposed by Peter Veth has galvanized archaeologists into pursuing specific questions at regional levels. This paper looks at that model using the following format.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Arid Region
Paleoenvironment
Islands in the Interior
Central Refuge
Corridors
Barriers
Dissecting the Islands
Biogeographic Regions
Technology
Social Transformation
Summary
Future Research
Conclusion
References
From the Paper
"Paleoenvironment information is derived from 'geomorphological and paleoecological research in Australia and New Guinea? (Mulvaney and Kamminga 1999). Sites at Lake Fromme, Lake Eyre and Willandra indicate higher precipitation rates from 40,000 to 25,000 BP, followed by a colder drier climate c. 21,000 ? 15,000 BP, known as the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). During the LGM sea levels were 130 metres below present shorelines increasing Australia's overall land area, connecting New Guinea in the North and Tasmania to the South. Mulvaney (1999:116) suggests a reduction in warm surrounding ocean and increased landmass was responsible for creating intense inland aridity. Paradoxically, the intense aridity associated with the LGM palaeoenvironment coincides with human occupation dates for the arid region. Although, Ross et al., (Lourandos 1992) maintains ?The arid interior has always been dry, in geomorphic terms.? During this period, inland lake levels fluctuated until c. 14,000 BP when most inland lakes became dry, possibly extending the arid area into present day semi?arid boundaries (Fig. 1) until ?a general climatic amelioration [began] towards the start of the Holocene? (Lourandos 1997)."
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War in Pre-state and State Societies, 2000.
This paper compares the frequency and severity of war in pre-state and state societies.
2,140 words (approx. 8.6 pages), 25 sources, MLA, $ 66.95
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Abstract
Violent conflict is well documented in human history and certainly appears in many prehistorical finds. The writer provides a systematic and comparative study of warfare from an archaeological perspective. This paper shows that the frequency and severity of war is commensurate and indeed rises with increased complexity of social interactions.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Definition of War
Pre-state and State Societies
Civilization
Prehistoric War
Hebrews: Pre-Monarchy
Hebrew Monarchy
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Has the frequency and severity of warfare increased? More specifically, have these levels escalated compared to pre-state societies and societies of state? Firstly, in answering this question a definition of war is proposed, followed by a classification of societies, and a definition of the term 'civilization'. Secondly, details of prestate Hebrew society and their early state civilization will be contrasted. Finally, the contemporary Assyrian state that ultimately dominated the Hebrews is reviewed. In this assessment the essay draws on various historical and archaeological accounts that portray the increased frequency and severity of war."
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Pristine Virginia, 2001.
This paper looks in detail at the physical landscape of Virginia and how it has changed due to human cultural activity.
1,096 words (approx. 4.4 pages), 42 sources, MLA, $ 38.95
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Abstract
Compared to the ancient landmass, humans are a recent arrival to what is considered the state of Virginia. This essay documents the extent to which human land use has impacted the Virginian landscape.
Table of Contents:
Ancient Virginia
Arrival of Humans
Archaic ? Woodland Period
Europeans
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Undoubtedly, Virginia is old with complex geology, to the west lies the ancient Appalachian and Blue Ridge province, formed on the margin of Laurentia during the Proterozoic over 1,100 million years ago. The largest physiographic province in Virginia is the Piedmont (appendix 1) comprised of weathered bedrock, overlain with saprolite, eroded in stream valleys. The Coastal plain is a terraced landscape, the bedrock consists of igneous and metamorphic rock, with various layers above comprised of sediment deposited in warm shallow seas, and eroded clay, sand, and gravel stripped from the Appalachians (Roberts and Bailey 2001). Remaining temperate forests seen below, possibly began forming about 10,000 years ago, when the Virginian shoreline extended some 30 miles further east onto the continental shelf, and glaciers withdrew as the climate warmed, though temperatures were still much colder than today (Riparian Forest Buffers 1996). The piedmont to the west, and coastal plain to the east is a dynamic environment, continually undergoing change through natural processes."
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