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The Neanderthals, 2002.
An overview of the theories related to this early race of humans which originated in Europe.
1,580 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 51.95
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Abstract
The Neanderthals were an early race who lived in Europe and probably West Asia between 120,000 and 35,000 years ago. This paper looks at the fossils found from 1856 who tell the story of the Neanderthal's travelling through Europe and Asia. It looks at the three conflicting theories between scientists who disagree over their interpretations about what constitutes the characteristics of a Neanderthal. Other aspects discussed in the paper include anatomical characteristics, tool-making techniques and cultural rituals.
From the Paper
"Scientists who examined the fossils disagreed in their interpretations. German anatomist Rudolf Virchow was the first to study these fossils and believed that they decidedly belonged to a homo sapiens with rickets, a physical condition that results from the lack of Vitamin D (Browning). Virchow also suggested that the Neanderthal man?s flattened head was the outcome of powerful blows. As more fossils got discovered, the belief that they belonged to a sub-human species developed.
After many skeletons were dug out, French paleontologist Marcellin Boule advanced the theory that Neanderthals could not fully extend their legs, walked in stooped posture, and with their heads thrust forward. The concept was popularly accepted for approximately 50 years, after which Boule?s theory was appraised by researchers. They concluded that Neanderthals did not walk in stoop posture but rather upright but stooped because of arthritis (Browning). Some scientists considered them a subspecies of homo sapiens, to which contemporary human beings belong today. This assumption was based on the differences in anatomy between the Neanderthals and the homo sapiens."
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Solomon, David and Israel, 2002.
Examines the reigns of Solomon and David in ancient Israel.
3,315 words (approx. 13.3 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 94.95
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Abstract
Looks at the differing historical assessments of the nature of Israel during the rules of David and Solomon and whether Israel could be classified as a kingdom during those times. Examines both the traditional view, where David and Solomon are considered central to Jewish history, and the position taken by a group called the "new archaeologists" who claim that David and Solomon were, at best, small-time leaders of local tribes.
From the Paper
"Such an analysis is more a matter of commentary on the text than any sort of historical analysis because until recently there was little clear evidence that David or Solomon even existed, and many scholars have claimed that they did not. Under the traditional view, David and Solomon are considered central to Jewish history. A group known as the "new archaeologists" claim that David and Solomon were at best small-time leaders of local tribes, making the greatness of Israel under their leadership is a matter of exaggeration. For instance, they doubt that Solomon ever built the great temple as described in the Bible. These scholars are also known as the "minimalists" because they believe in a minimal interpretation of the evidence available about ancient Israel."
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Sculpture and Form in Ancient Egypt and Greece, 2002.
Examines how ancient Egypt influenced early Greek culture, as can be seen through works of art from the time period.
1,462 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 7 sources, APA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
Ancient Egypt had a significant impact on early Greek culture, as can be evidenced by enduring artifacts. Egyptian sculptures, primarily created for the pharaohs or high-ranking officials and essentially religious in function, significantly influenced the form and style of statues of the early Archaic Age. Poses were rather rigid and very conventional and facial expression was confined to the typical Egyptian half smile. The paper shows that over time, Greek artisans began developing their own approach. By the late Archaic and definitely prior to the beginning of the Golden Age or Classical Period, artwork started to reflect evolving philosophies and ideals and to celebrate the human figure. Sculptures portrayed more elaborate features and less static stances.
From the Paper
"The statues also represented the society?s hierarchy. At the bottom of the rung were the slaves, tomb builders and farmers. Further up came the craftspeople, educators, doctors, noblemen and priests. The pharaoh filled more than the role of king and ruler. He was considered a god on earth. (Grant 1990, 23) Egyptians used the size of their statues to illustrate the social order. The pharaoh was larger then life size, scribes and court officials life size and workers and peasants always shown working. The images of the pharaoh, always larger than life, made him appear all the more god-like. The large works of sculpture were often displayed at temples that were built for the pharaoh?s chosen deity."
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Koriun, 2002.
Examines the life and works of this fifth century Christian-Armenian scholar.
1,260 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
Koriun was one of a few ?historians? who have documented the time and early history of Armenia. This paper discusses this Armenian scholar of the 5th Century who was among those who first translated the Bible into Armenian. It examines his most valid contribution to Armenian literature - "The Life of Mashtots", a book based on the life of his mentor, St. Mashtots Vardapet.
From the Paper
"Christian literature in the 5th Century was limited within Armenia. Elsewhere, church historians contributed their recordings regarding influential changes in Christian literature and relevant translations of doctrines. Writers like the 5th-century church historian Gennadius of Marseilles documented the life the life of Nicetas of Remesiana and his sacred musical influences to converted Serbians.
Such historians are of value to the period as by the end of the 5th Century, the Roman Empire was split in two, with Milan as one capital and Constantinople as another. During invasions in the east, vandals and Goth invaders destroyed many manuscripts and doctrines."
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Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Hebrews, 2002.
Traces the development of civilizations from Mesopotamia and Egypt and the influence of the Hebrews on their societies, as seen in historical ancient documents.
1,704 words (approx. 6.8 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 55.95
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Abstract
Mesopotamia was the land of four primary civilizations: the Sumerian, the Akkadians, the Babylonian and the Assyrians. The paper shows that the Hebrews, like the Akkadians, belong to a group of people known as Semites and from there we can see the influence of Mesopotamian culture in some of the Hebrews traditions. The paper shows that during the same time, civilization began in Egypt. A distinct difference can be seen in the social, religious and political system from Mesopotamia and the link between the two civilizations are the Hebrews. The paper examines historical documents from all three societies - "The Epic of Gilgamesh", first passed on by word of mouth and later recorded by the Sumerians around the third millennium and finally edited and written down in cuneiform by the Babylonians; "Instructions of Kagemni", a set of etiquette amongst Egyptian noblemen and government executives; and finally the Holy Hebrew Bible ("Tanach"). The paper shows how the three societies are linked through proof in these documents.
From the Paper
""Hymn to Aton" reflects the political and social status of the time and adds to the importance of the aid of god to proper management of a territory and the people within. This was the first and only attempt of a Egyptian ruler to a monotheistic society. It could be argued that this could be an isolated attempt or that the Hebrews somehow influenced Amenhotep IV to this change. It is very important to consider this possibility since it would make the transferring of similar traditions between the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians and the Hebrews civilizations understandable.
The role of women is important and well respected in Egyptian civilization, perhaps more than Mesopotamian. The "Hymn to Aton" recognizes the importance of both sexes for procreation. This document is used just as the "Laws of Hammurabi" to better control his territory at a time when the clergy and the multitude of gods and temples are gaining popularity and, obviously, control."
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?Head of the King Wearing the Khepresh Crown?, 2002.
This paper looks at a piece of sculpture dating from the Egyptian reign of Amenhotep III created by an unknown sculptor.
1,058 words (approx. 4.2 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 37.95
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Abstract
The writer discusses the "Head of the King", a statue considered to have been created by a group of artists. This is determined by the style of the sculpture and the material used. The paper shows how statues from this period can be classified as belonging to a single artist or to a group. It is assumed, but not proven, that the works belonging to this ?second style? can be timed to belong to the end of Amenhotep III?s rule.
From the Paper
"The work is a sculpture, depicting the head of the King. Its measurements are: Height, 34 inches; width 22.9 inches; depth, 25.3 inches. It is currently in the Louvre Museum, Paris, France. The head is constructed out of granodiorite, which is a very hard medium. It is interesting that, in spite of the difficulty of working the granodiorite, the artisans that sculpted the head have worked it ?as though it were modeling clay? ( Kozloff, 164).
The work is presently in relatively good condition, for the parts that remain. The evidence shows that it was originally a life-sized statue of the King, with an original height of approximately 160 ? 170 centimeters. This would have been the height without any base or pedestal. Of course, there is no accurate way to determine for sure what the size of the base might have been. Other representative standing statues from this period are known to have been resting on bases of up to 100 to 150 centimeters."
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Greek Stele, 2002.
A discussion on an inscribed stone slab (stele) which depicts several images and texts, found in the Boston Museum of Fine Art.
1,145 words (approx. 4.6 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 39.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses a Greek stele dating back to the Early Hellenistic Period (about 300?250 B.C.) which depicts various divinities, the ship of the Argonauts and diplomatic text. The paper explains the shape of the stele and discusses the meaning of the text against the background of Greek history, specifically the Peloponnesian Wars. The paper also explores the importance of the dieties depicted on the stele, in relation to the gods and legends of the time period.
From the Paper
"In analyzing and interpreting the text, it is safe to assume that Timeas of Laconia is being given the authority to serve as proxy for the Boiotians. The word ?proxenos? is so close to the English word ?proxy,? meaning someone who has the authority to act on behalf of another, that is nearly impossible that this could be a misinterpretation. Furthermore, this authority will pass on, presumably indefinitely, to his heirs.
Ergoteles, who apparently was in power when this decree was issued, was archon. An archon was a chief magistrate in ancient Athens; that is, a local official exercising administrative and often judicial functions. Therefore, it was Ergoteles? responsibility to make sure that not only was this decree carried out, but also that it was enforced."
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The Architecture of the Maya, 2002.
An examination of the architecture of the Maya and their great contribution to world architecture.
2,888 words (approx. 11.6 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 85.95
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Abstract
This paper is an examination of Mayan architecture which emerged from the rainforests of Guatemala and Yucatan. The writer maintains that the detailed architecture was a fitting monument to the highly sophisticated civilization that existed in the region before the Spanish arrived. This look at the style of Mayan architecture includes a diagram highlighting the areas of construction in Copan. The paper argues that Mayan culture was more than a collection of buildings in that every aspect of architecture was linked to the sacred world around. In conclusion the writer explains that the temple pyramid which symbolizes Mayan architectural skill is also a statement of their cosmographic ideas. Everything has a beginning and end. Everything is the beginning and the end.
From the Paper
"Deep in the tangled rainforests of Guatemala and the Yucatan, the Maya made some of the greatest contributions to world architecture. Their stone cities complete with temples, palaces, tombs, and ball courts are fitting monuments to the complex, and highly sophisticated civilization that existed in these regions many centuries before the arrival of the Spanish. Mayan priest-astronomers made elaborate calculations to catalog the passage of time. Great warrior kings immortalized themselves and their deeds on stelae, recording for future generations the contributions they had made toward maintaining the cosmic order. The Maya were the only Pre-Columbian people to ever have invented a complete system of writing".
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Etruscan Culture, 2002.
A look at the artistic influence of ancient Roman inhabitants, the Etruscans.
736 words (approx. 2.9 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 26.95
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Abstract
Before the notoriety of ancient Rome, Italy was the home of a nation called Etruria, whose inhabitants were known as Etruscans. Unfortunately, bitter Roman or ancient Greek historians have misconstrued the Etruscan legacy, in most cases tainting their accounts with a blatant anti-Etruscan bias. This paper considers why there exists such a lack of information about the Etruscans and further illuminates the extent to which surviving artwork offers insights into their culture.
From the Paper
"From excavations at certain Etruscan sites, it is clear that art was a vital part of life. In Murlo, a seventh century Etruscan villa was unearthed revealing that large, painted terracotta panels typically adorned the entrances to buildings. Elaborate polychrome reliefs and frescoes indicate that the Etruscans used colour generously, even from the earliest times (Gore, 701)."
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Greek Archaeological Sites, 2002.
A discussion of Greek archaeological sites and the problem of theft of artifacts.
720 words (approx. 2.9 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 25.95
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Abstract
This paper provides a brief discussion of Greek history and Cretan art. The paper examines the phenomenon of looters and theft from Greek archaeological sites. The on-going battle against looting and smuggling antiquities is described, including an overview of international laws.
From the Paper
"Looters can be dated as far back as 134 B.C. when the Romans originally stole from the Greeks. Only during the last century did countries such as Greece become concerned about their cultures, since the high prices of the artifacts have lead to more of their treasures being stolen. In the 1960?s, the popularity of marble statues encouraged thieves to loot the Aegean Islands for statues produced by the Cycladic culture during the Bronze Age. The looters destroyed over 12,000 graves in the course of their thefts. While many of these statues are in private collections, few have been recovered by archaeologists."
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Ancient Mesopotamia, 2002.
An introduction to the art and culture of ancient Mesopotamia.
794 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 28.95
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Abstract
This essay describes how the art and culture of ancient Mesopotamia was defined by its climate and geographical locations. It also shows how the weather and geographical conditions affected wars and power in the region - and the reflection of this fact through art and artifacts found in the region.
From the Paper
"Many believed that the south was the cradle of civilization until settlements dating back to around 5,000 B.C. were found in Northern Mesopotamia. Jarmo was the earliest of these settlements and was superseded by a series of cultures, Tell Hassuna, Samarra, and Tell Halaf. Tell Halaf was the most advanced of the early cultures (Mesopotamia pg). It is famous for Halaf ware, which is regarded as the finest prehistoric pottery in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia pg). Halaf ware can be found at sites such as Neneveh and Tepe Gawra. While the north was making great advances in culture, ?civilization was just beginning in the south, particularly at Eridu."
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The Scarab of Wah and Heart Scarab of Hatnofer, 2002.
A description of the famous scarabs and a discussion of the significance of scarabs to ancient religion and culture.
2,954 words (approx. 11.8 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 87.95
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Abstract
This paper attempts to understand the Scarab of Wah through examination and by comparison to the Heart Scarab of Hatnofer which are both currently housed in the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. It discusses how both scarabs are likenesses of the scarab beetle and how these likenesses are found in abundance in Egyptian archaeology and in ancient myths and cultures.
Table of contents: The History of The Scarab in Ancient pre-Egyptian Cultures
The Scarab in Mythology
Symbolism of the Scarab in Egypt
An Overview of Scarab ArtifactsThe Scarab of Wah
The Heart Scarab of Hatnofer
Discussion
Endnotes
Bibliography
From the Paper
"In the culture of he Chaco Indians, in South America, they believe that the scarab modeled man and Woman from Clay [4]. The scarab is known as the ?potter? for this reason. This same symbolism is found in Egyptian culture as well. Ancient Greek legends say that the beetle plunged down into the original liquid ?chaos? and brought back life to the surface. This myth is also prevalent among people from India and Southeast Asia [5].The Sumatran Toba believed that the big beetle brought a ball of matter from the sky and formed the world. The Egyptian and Greeks believed that the dung beetle could fly while carrying a dung ball. However this is physically impossible in reality."
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